Emery N. Castle, ed. The Changing American Countryside: Rural People and Places. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1995.
A collection of readings on the rural scene written by experts in their fields, the book could have been subtitled "Rural America Beyond Agriculture" as it emphasizes the complexity of the rural setting.

Economic Research Service. "Understanding Rural America," Agriculture Information Bulletin No. 710. Washington, DC: United States Department of Agriculture, 1995.

The report follows research conducted by the Rural Economy Division of the Economic Research Service on changes in rural America. Employment, population, and rural well-being are highlighted along with discussion of major county types: farming, manufacturing, service, retirement, federal lands, and persistent poverty.

David Freshwater, "Rural America at the Turn of the Century: One Analyst's Perspective," Rural America, Vol. 15, No. 3 (September 2000).
The article calls for sound policies to ensure that rural America can develop a viable economic base to replace extractive industries and primary sector manufacturing employment. The task is not viewed as being an easy one to accomplish given urban America's general suspicion of what goes on in the rural areas. This is especially true of the conflict over environmental preservation and development.

William A. Galston and Karen J. Baehler. Rural Development in the United States: Connecting Theory, Practice and Possibilities. Washington, DC: Island Press, 1995.
The authors consider future development directions for rural areas. A summary of research in rural development over the past 20 years provides background for integrating development theory and practical experience in order to develop new thinking about directions for rural growth. Analysis is provided on key rural economic sectors: natural resources, services, the elderly, telecommunications, manufacturing, tourism, and high technology.

Kenneth M. Johnson and Calvin L. Beale, "The Rural Rebound," The Wilson Quarterly, Spring 1998.
The authors contend that the population decline in rural areas in the 1980s was an anomaly and that a turnaround has been underway for at least a decade. However, lower fertility rates in rural counties will require that continued growth be based on encouraging in-migration. In addition, the rural areas will be linked more than ever to national and global economic, political, and social dynamics.

Aldo Leopold. For the Health of the Land: Previously Unpublished Essays and other Writings. Washington, DC: Island Press, 1999.
Aldo Leopold's earlier plea for the development of a "land ethic" is followed in this new volume of more of his writings. In this book, Leopold's notion of "land health" is introduced and suggestions are made on how to maintain it. Forty short pieces are included in this volume.

Paul Lorah, "Population Growth, Economic Security and Cultural Change in Wilderness Counties," Department of Geography, University of St. Thomas, St. Paul, Minnesota, n.d.
The author used data from 113 western counties with populations under 2500 to refute the "jobs versus environment" argument, which suggests that wilderness areas limit economic growth because access to extractive products is either severely limited or denied. The article includes a series of county-based maps of the study area and a bibliography of pertinent readings.

Tim Palmer, Heart of America: Our Landscape Our Future. Washington, DC: Island Press, 1999.
The book presents a general overview of American landscapes, a tour that has been described as an "illuminating portrait of America at the threshold of the new millennium." The basic geography and ecological value of each landscape in introduced and discussion follows on steps being taken to preserve the land for future generations.

Deborah E. Popper and Frank J. Popper, "The Buffalo Commons as Regional Metaphor and Geographic Method,"
A draft accepted for publication in the Geographical Review. Deborah and Frank Potter review the recent history of the Great Plains and provide recent evidence that the Buffalo Commons thesis is unfolding much quicker than originally predicted in earlier writings. The authors extend the application of metaphor to other regions in the U.S.

Thomas Michael Power. Lost Landscapes and Failed Economies: The Search for the Value of Place. Washington, DC: Island Press, 1998.
The author provides an argument against the conventional model of rural communities dependent on extractive industries. Power wants to lay to rest the long-held notion that environmental protection will lead to the economic collapse of rural communities.

Beryl Radin, ed. New Governance for Rural America: Creating Intergovernmental Partnerships. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1996.
In the 1990s, a new relationship between government and the public emerged: decreased federal control and more intergovernmental collaboration along with increased involvement of state, local, and private agencies. The authors in this edited collection contend that the new governance provided by National and State Rural Development Councils developed in the 1990s is the best approach to ensuring sound socioeconomic development in rural America.

Jean Richardson, Partnerships in Communities: Reweaving the Fabric of Rural America, Washington, DC: Island Press, 2000.

Findings from the project Environmental Partnerships in Communities (EPIC) are included in this study aimed at deriving sustainable rural community development. The book addresses the need for self-directed community development and presents ideas to enhance the building of organizational structures, historic preservation, and other themes of importance to rural communities.

Patricia Salant and Anita J. Waller. Guide to Rural Data. Washington, DC: Island Press, 1995.
Major sources of data on rural communities are catalogued in this book, a revised version of A Community Researcher's Guide to Rural Data (1990). Data is included on population and community resources, rural economies, and rural governments.

James A. Ciarlo, et al. "Focusing on 'Frontier': Isolated Rural America," Letter to the Field No. 2, Boulder: Frontier Mental Health Services Resource Network, April 11, 1996.
The article reviews various definitions of 'rural' and 'frontier'. Discussion follows on the topics of rural isolation, the economic structure of rural communities, rural and frontier value systems, and poverty. Frontier rural areas, the article points out, exist at the furthest end of the urban/rural continuum.

John B Cromartie and Linda L. Swanson. "Census Tracts More Precisely Define Rural Populations and Areas," Rural Development Perspectives, Vol. 11, No. 3, 1997.
Precise measurement of a settlement is the key to achieving the most thorough understanding of internal economic and social problems. Census tracts can provide a finer delineation of population than does county-based mapping especially for counties large in size and those adjacent to urban areas.

Dayton Duncan. Miles from Nowhere: In Search of the American Frontier. New York: Viking Penguin, 1994. Fifteen western states, generally considered as comprising the 'frontier', are examined in this analysis. Historical coverage is followed by discussions with the current residents of the low population density West.

Frontier Education Center, "The Geography of Frontier America: The View at the Turn of the Century," HCR 65 Box 126, Ojo Sarco, NM, January 2000.
This document provides a matrix definition of frontier counties, information on health resources, land ownership, and the frontier economy. Speculation is offered on how Frontier America would change in the 2000 Census. A list of recommended future research topics is included.

Deborah Epstein Popper, Robert E. Lang, and Frank J. Popper. "From Maps to Myth: The Census, Turner, and the Idea of the Frontier," Journal of American and Comparative Cultures, Spring 2000.
Frederick Jackson Turner's historic thesis is recounted in this provocative article. The idea of the frontier has persisted long after the Census declaration in 1890 that the frontier no longer physically existed. In 1943, Harvard President James Bryant Conant proposed a restructuring of the education system to allow the freedom of choice representative of the frontier decades earlier. Emile Durkheim predicted that the idea of the frontier would continue to evolve and grow.

Thomas C. Ricketts, Karen D. Johnson-Webb, and Patricia Taylor, "Definitions of Rural: A Handbook for Health Policy Makers and Researchers," a Technical Paper prepared for the Federal Office of Rural Health Policy, Health Resources and Services Administration, July 7, 1998.
The document reviews federal definitions of 'rural' and the concept of frontier. A table of state rural population is included along with maps showing percent rural by state (1990), non-metropolitan counties, counties designated metropolitan since 1983, urban influence codes (1997), and counties gaining frontier statue between 1983 and 1990.

Pearlanne T. Zelarney and James A. Ciarlo, "Defining and Describing Frontier Areas in the United States: An Update," Letter to the Field No. 22- Draft, Frontier Mental Health Services Resource Network, n.d.
Frontier definitions are reviewed including the one used be the Frontier Education Center based in Santa Fe, New Mexico. This Letter to the Field reviews previous work done by the frontier mental Health Services Resource network and adds further information on the frontier in terms of economic development, population, poverty levels, health and mental health, and the impact of technology. Frontier areas, despite their social and economic diversity, are often the forgotten type of rural area according to this study.

Economic Development

Lorna Aldrich and Lorin Kusmin. "Rural Economic Development: What Makes Rural Communities Grow?" Agricultural Information Bulletin No.737, Washington, DC: United States Department of Agriculture, September 1997.
Based on an Economic Research Service Report, this study reviews the principal variables accounting for growth in rural communities. Demography, labor markets, education, local taxes and expenditures, transportation access, business and banking structure, amenities, relationship to metropolitan areas, and economic base categorize the factors.

Jon E. Burkhardt, James L. Hedrick, and Alan T. McGavock. Assessment of the Impacts of Rural Public Transportation. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1998.
Includes case studies on the economic impact of the nearly 1200 public transportation systems serving rural communities. The report is aimed at state and local transportation planners and analysts.

Community Transportation Association of America, Institute for Economic and Social Measurement. "Status of Rural Transportation," Rural Transit Assistance Program, Federal Transit Administration, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Transportation, 2001.
This comprehensive report concludes that investments in rural transport are positive for economic development. More funding is required, however, in order to insure timely provision of services to remote areas.

Roger Dower, et al. Frontiers of Sustainability: Environmentally Sound Agriculture, Forestry, Transportation, and Power. World Resources Institute, Washington, DC: Island Press, 1997. This book provides a viable plan for attaining sustainable development. Based on recommendations made by the President's Council for Sustainable Development, the report cautions against potentially dangerous trends in uncontrolled development and resource use.

Ralph E. Heimlich and William D. Anderson. Development at the Urban Fringe and Beyond: Impacts on Agriculture and Rural Land. Economic Research Service, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, 2001.
This study explores the impact of urban expansion and large-lot development (housing sites greater than one acre in area) in rural areas. Greater federal assistance is called for in the report to channel growth in desired directions.

Paul F. Lasley, et al, eds. Beyond the Amber Waves of Grain: Examination of Social and Economic Restructuring in the Hinterland. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1995.
The book is based on surveys taken of 7000 farm men and women in 12 midwestern states hit hardest by the economic crisis of the 1980s.

Beryl A. Radin. "State Rural Development Councils Are Creating Public-Private Partnerships," Rural Development Perspectives, Vol. 11, No. 2.
The State Rural Development Councils (SRDC) have achieved some success in dealing with a wide array of rural issues in addition to those related to agriculture and including human services and environmental quality. SRDC partnership efforts are aimed at enhancing local community participation in decision-making, the acquisition of technical assistance to rural communities as needed, and general information gathering.

"Recent Changes Advance New Markets and Livability Initiatives," Rural Conditions and Trends, Vol. 11, No. 1.
The Livable Communities initiative enacted in 1999 addressed a wide array of issues related to basic quality of life. Two of these issues are of particular importance to rural communities: preservation of natural amenities and the avoidance of sprawl-related situations. The amenities issue is connected to the concept of sustainable development and the understanding that rural areas will remain viable only if their amenity levels are maintained.

Peter V. Schaeffer and Scott Loveridge, eds. Small Town and Rural Economic Development: A Case Study Approach. Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers, 2000.
Rural towns have undergone significant changes in the past half-century. Diversity marks the rural town at the beginning of the 21st century and this book presents case studies to exemplify this feature. Examples are provided that highlight successes in rural development and some experiences that were less than positive. Community involvement is seen as one of the most important ingredients in rural town development.

David W. Sears and J. Norman Reid, eds. Rural Development Strategies. Chicago: Nelson-Hall Inc., 1995. The reexamination of rural policy is the main theme of this book. Thirteen chapters address a variety of policy issues including local economic development strategies, helping the unemployed start business, the importance of local airports to rural businesses, and community involvement in education as a rural development strategy.

Eileen S. Stommes and Dennis M. Brown. "Transportation in Rural America: Issues for the 21st Century," Rural America, Vol. 16, No. 4, Winter 2002.
Transportation is a cornerstone of rural economic development. Yet the challenges remain formidable to the achievement of viable accessibility for remote rural communities. Although progress has been made in surface transportation systems in rural areas, some experts contend that air service levels in rural areas has declined, rail service has been reduced, road maintenance costs have increased, and there are fewer bus stops.

Health Care

Center for Rural Health Initiatives. "Rural Health in Texas: A Report to The Governor and The 76th Texas Legislature," Austin, January 1999.
Recommendations in the report include the need for a comprehensive inventory of health related programs and services in the state, determining the availability of grants and other financial sources to augment rural health programs, the collection and publication of local health care delivery successes, and efforts to coordinate rural health care with state agencies, professional organizations, medical schools, and communities. The report includes county maps showing health professional shortage areas and medically underserved areas.

"Changing Demographics Challenge Rural Health Care," Health Care Discussions, Fall 1998.
This quarterly newsletter provides insights into health care challenges in North Dakota, a state that is both declining in population and seeing a significant rural to urban shift. This issue deals with health care delivery in remote areas of the state, the prospect of linking urban health care facilities to rural communities, the difficulties experienced when a rural hospital closes, and the shortage of funding for emergency medical services in rural areas.

Frontier Education Center. "Extended Stay Primary Care: Working with Frontier Communities to Design facilities that Work," HCR 65 Box 126, Ojo Sarco, New Mexico, June 2000.
The establishment of extended stay primary care facilities in frontier area presents difficult problems because these communities may not have a hospital and distances to existing hospital facilities are usually extensive. The Frontier Education Center recommended that extended stay primary care clinics be established in frontier communities.

William M. Gesler and Thomas C. Ricketts, eds. Health in Rural North America: The Geography of Health Care Services and Delivery. Piscataway, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1992. This collection of articles includes the work of experts in public health, demography, and geography in the consideration of rural health care services and delivery. Of particular attention are children, older people, the infirmed, and the mentally ill.

Leon H. Ginsberg, ed. Social Work in Rural Communities, 3rd ed. Alexandria, VA: Council on Social Work Education, 1998. This prominent text deals with current issues in rural social work. The book has been described as an essential source for preparing social worker for the rural areas.

Michael R. Grey. New Deal Medicine: The Rural Health Programs of the Farm Security Administration. Lessons from the New Deal era are reviewed and the author emphasizes how the system can be instructive in today's rural health care development efforts.

National Rural Health Association, "Health Care in Frontier America: A Time for Change," Office of Rural Health Policy, September 1994. This report concludes that health care is not adequate in America's frontier communities. Recommendations made in the document include the establishment of a national definition for frontier service areas, the development of financing mechanisms for frontier medical facilities, and provisions for guaranteeing access to health care for frontier residents, the recruitment and retention of frontier health care providers, recognition of the critical role played by frontier emergency medical services, and the funding of frontier health care systems by Congress.

Shirley J. Jones and Joan Levy Zlotnik, eds. Preparing Helping Professionals to Meet Community Needs: Generalizing from the Rural Experience. Alexandria, VA: Council on Social Work Education, 1998. This collection of articles addresses changes in the role of health care and educational professionals in rural areas. Rural communities are the focus of case studies on social work and health care.

Jerry A. Morris and Paula Egelson, eds. Practicing Psychology in Rural Settings: Hospital Privileges and Collaborative Care. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 1998. At the time of publication only 17 states have laws allowing psychologists to practice in hospital settings. The book is designed to help psychologists educate hospital administrators about the value of having psychologists on staff.

National Rural Health Association. "Access to Health Care for the Uninsured in Rural and Frontier America," NRHA Issue Paper. Kansas City, MO, May 1999. The report suggests that the number of Americans without health insurance continues to grow and rural and frontier communities are the most effected. In response to this situation, the NRHA reaffirms its position on universal access to health care. Also, the NRHA supports the strengthening of rural and frontier health delivery systems and the provision of health care for the underinsured and the uninsured. The NRHA continues to advocate for the elimination of inequitable rural-urban disparities in health care.

National Rural Health Association. "Rural and Frontier Emergency Medical Services Toward the Year 2000," NRHA Issue Paper, May 1997. This issue paper examines the status of emergency medical services (EMS) in rural and frontier communities. The critical nature of EMS as a health care safety net in rural and frontier areas is emphasized in this report.

Raymond W. Pong and J. Roger Pitblado. "Don't Take Geography for Granted! Some methodological Issues in Measuring Geographic Distribution of Physicians," Canadian Journal of Rural Medicine, Spring 2000. The authors suggest that the long-used ratio of physicians and people is inadequate when designing health care delivery systems. Of greater importance are factors of physician mobility and the distance traveled by patients in rural areas. The study was conducted in Canada but the findings are pertinent to rural and frontier communities in the United States.

Thomas C. Ricketts, ed. Rural Health in the United States. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999. This book is an update of Health Care in Rural America published in 1990. An extensive analysis of health care in rural America is provided along with maps showing the uneven distribution of health care professionals and facilities nation-wide.

Tom Seekins, Bill Innes, and Nancy Maxson. "An Update on the Demography of Rural Disability," RTC: Rural Factsheet, The University of Montana Rural Institute, 1998. Several definitions of "disability" are reviewed in this RTC: Rural Factsheet. Research findings indicate that higher percentages of disabled people reside in non-metropolitan counties than in metropolitan areas. The problems faced by disabled people in rural areas are magnified because of the lack of access to employment, inadequate transportation systems, shortage of housing, and difficulty in accessing health care.

Patricia Winstead-Fry, Julia Churchill Tiffany, and Raelene V. Shippee-Rice. Rural Health Nursing: Stories of Creativity, Commitment, and Connectedness.New York: National League for Nursing, 1992.

Gerontology

Wilbert M. Gesler, et al. Rural Health and Aging Research: Theory, Methods, and Practical Applications.Amityville, NY: Baywood Publishing Company, Inc., 1998. Funded by a grant from the National Institute on Aging, this interdisciplinary group developed a wide-ranging set of approaches to studying health care issues among the elderly in rural settings. Both quantitative and qualitative approaches were used in their research along with interdisciplinary cooperation, the integration of theory and practice, and community-academic collaboration.

Linda G. Martin and Samuel H. Preston, eds. Demography of Aging. Commission on Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1994. A wide-ranging analysis of the demographics of aging is presented in this book. Chapter themes include economic and income data on the elderly, health care, medical demography, socioeconomic differences in adult mortality and health status, and the geographic concentration of the elderly

Carolyn C. Rogers. "Changes in the Older Population and Implications for Rural Areas," Economic Research Service, Rural Development and Research Report No. 90, Washington, DC, U.S. Department of Agriculture, February 2000. The fastest growing cohort of the U.S. population between 1980 and 1990 were those 85 and older. This age cohort tends to include mostly women who are in poor health, who live alone, and are poor. The report analyzes changes in the demographics of older people and discusses the implications for social programs and health care pertinent to them.

Carolyn C. Rogers. "Growth of the Oldest Old Population and Future Implications for Rural Areas," Rural Development Perspectives, Vol. 14, No. 3. The "oldest old" are people aged 85 and over. This age cohort is the fastest growing segment of the U.S. population, having increased 37 percent between 1980 and 1990. Although Medicare provides much needed health care protection, the program does not cover long-term care, an area of great need in the oldest old population segment. As the number of elderly people continues to increase in the U.S. the need to provide services to them becomes a major issue, especially in the rural areas.

Jacob S. Siegel. A Generation of Change: A Profile of America's Older Population. New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1993. The book documents changes in the social, economic, and demographic aspects of older Americans. The study encompasses the period from the 1950s through the mid-1980s.

Bibliographies & References

Susan Bernstein, "Selected Federal Programs: Meeting the Health Care Needs of Rural Americans," Capital Area Rural Health Roundtable, George Mason University, Fairfax, VA, April 2000. This 20-page report lists federal agencies that provide grants for rural health related programs. A listing of federal and other rural health care websites is also included.

Economic Geography of Health Care Systems, (http://faculty.washington.edu/), This website lists a number of on-line health care sites and includes an extensive bibliography of books and articles on health related topics. Representative titles in the bibliography include Health in Rural America: The Geography of Health Care Services and Delivery (1992) and The Added Value of Geographical Information Systems in Public and Environmental Health (1995).

Economic Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture(http://www.ers.usda.gov/briefing). This website has a number of on-line data sources. For example, "measuring rurality: urban influence codes" brings up a U.S. map and links to all states. Clicking on a state name brings a list of counties in that state with urban influence code number, county description, land area (sq. mi.), and 1990 population density per square mile. Other topics presented in the same manner include county level poverty rates and county level unemployment and median household income. There are many more to chose.

The Journal of Rural Health, Subject Index - 1985 through 2000 (http://nrharural.org/search) Provides a number of subject categories and related bibliographic items. For example, a search for "frontier health care" brought eight entries. Other subjects available include "rural/urban differences," and "economics." The complete list of subjects is extensive.

NRHA Advocacy, Issue Papers (http://www.nrharural.org/dc). The full text versions of the Issue Papers adopted by the National Rural Health Association's Rural Health Policy Board are available at this site. The papers state the association's position and policies on federal programs and issues affecting rural health.